Osman Şenkul
In his famous book ‘The Republic’, the Greek philosopher Plato states, ‘The servants of the state (civil servants) must serve without accepting any gifts; those who do not comply with this should be punished by court order and buried without a funeral ceremony.’
As can be seen from this, human history is replete with incidents of corruption and bribery. Historical records indicate that bribery and corruption have been prevalent in nearly all societies.
Written records indicate that the first recorded case of bribery occurred in Mesopotamia during the reign of the Sumerians. Therefore, we can say that bribery dates back to the dawn of history.
A Sumerian tablet dating back to 4000 BC, housed in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is considered to be the ‘first evidence of bribery’. This tablet, entitled ‘Sumerian School Days’, tells the story of how a student who was failing his lessons suddenly became successful.
According to the tablet, the family, saddened by their children’s failure at school, finds a solution in inviting the teacher to their home. They feed and entertain the teacher, even giving them various gifts. The tablet states that the whole night was spent in entertainment and an abundance of gifts. From these records, it is understood that the first bribery incident in history bore fruit. The failing student suddenly becomes the most successful student in the class and is also appointed class president.
The Hittite country was quite safe for Assyrian merchants. As there were many cities close to each other, they could travel during the day and find safe places to stay at night until they reached their final destination. However, taxes had to be paid upon entering each city. A letter written by the wife of an Assyrian merchant states: ‘…The inspectors demanded the 1 mina of silver you sent me for the tax. I am afraid for you. But I have not given it to them yet…’
In the southernmost part of present-day Greece, on the Peloponnese Peninsula, Lykurgus, one of the legendary founding kings of the Spartan Kingdom, had built the entire social order on egalitarian principles. Believing that money would be harmful to the egalitarian order he sought to establish in society, he minted coins so heavy that they could neither be carried nor stored.
King Lycurgus, whose aim was to discourage people from using money, first removed silver and gold coins from circulation and introduced this unportable and unsalvageable coin. The purchasing power of this coin was very low in relation to its size. Therefore, no one would want to own it, and consequently, no one would want to engage in corruption and bribery.
In a country, systems where those in power systematically plunder the country’s resources are called ‘kleptocracy’. The term ‘kleptocracy’, formed by combining the Greek words ‘kleptes’, meaning thief, and “kratos”, meaning power or order, simply means ‘the rule of thieves’.
As seen in many historical examples, in regimes ruled by kleptocracy, the country’s resources are plundered through various methods. Acts such as bribery, embezzlement, extortion, abuse of office, influence peddling and favouritism are considered types of corruption. Furthermore, rent-seeking (monopoly, tariffs, licences, quotas, incentives and social assistance), lobbying, vote trading, embezzlement, extortion, money laundering, fraud, abuse of security, insider trading and favouritism (relatives, friends, family, political) constitute the main types of corruption.
Other forms of theft society that can trigger a ‘systematic culture of fraud’ have been defined as ‘political and institutional kleptomania’. In this case, plunder and looting enrich not only high-ranking government officials but also a narrow plutocratic class representing wealthy individuals and families who have amassed great fortunes, often through political patronage, special interest laws, monopolies, special tax breaks, state intervention, subsidies, or outright bribery. This type of political spoils economic system is sometimes referred to as crony capitalism.
The effects of a kleptocratic regime or government on a country are generally negative in terms of the state’s economy, political affairs, and civil rights. Kleptocratic governance often destroys the future of foreign investment and greatly weakens the domestic market and cross-border trade. Kleptocracies frequently misappropriate funds obtained from tax payments, embezzling money from their citizens or engaging intensively in money laundering activities, which substantially reduces citizens’ quality of life.
In addition, the money stolen by kleptocrats is diverted from funds allocated for public services such as hospitals, schools, roads and parks, further negatively impacting citizens’ quality of life. The informal oligarchy created by a kleptocratic elite group undermines democracy (or other political structures).
According to experts and historians familiar with the subject, despite the introduction of new protective laws and other measures, the much-needed broader crackdown on modern kleptocracy is being neglected. A significant indicator of this failure is the apparent inadequacy of the global anti-corruption sanctions regime. Even when kleptocrat assets are frozen, very little progress is made in conducting the investigations and gathering evidence necessary to secure the confiscation of those assets. Despite abundant evidence of smuggling, prosecutions for sanctions evasion remain ineffective. Consequently, experts state:
“Combating kleptocracy is crucial – not only for countries where funds are plundered, but also for the national security of countries where kleptocratic revenues flow. Illegal financing linked to corrupt elites from enemy states and kleptocratic jurisdictions undermines a nation’s reputation and leads to broader national security threats, such as the disruption of democratic processes and institutions.”